World War I

World War I resulted from a complex interplay of long-term factors that turned Europe into a "powder keg."

Imperialism and colonial rivalry: By 1914, great powers had virtually completed dividing the world. Germany, unified only in 1871, arrived late to the "colonial feast" and demanded its "place in the sun." The Moroccan Crises of 1905 and 1911 nearly led to war.

Alliance system: Europe split into two hostile blocs. Triple Alliance (1882): Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy. Triple Entente (1904–1907): France, Russia, Britain. The rigidity of alliances meant any local conflict could escalate into pan-European war.

Nationalism: In the Balkans, great power interests collided with nationalist movements of Slavic peoples. Serbia sought to unite South Slavs, threatening multinational Austria-Hungary. Pan-Slavism in Russia demanded protection of "Slavic brothers."

Arms race: Anglo-German naval rivalry was particularly intense. Germany built a High Seas Fleet threatening British naval supremacy. Universal conscription created mass armies — by 1914, Germany could mobilize 4.5 million men.

Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 sharply increased tensions. Serbia doubled its territory, and Austria-Hungary saw this as a mortal threat.

On June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo, capital of annexed Bosnia, an event occurred that triggered the world catastrophe.

THE Victims: Archduke Franz Ferdinand, 50-year-old heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, arrived in Sarajevo for military maneuvers with his wife Sophie. The date was symbolic — anniversary of the Battle of Kosovo (1389), sacred to Serbian nationalists.

THE Assassin: 19-year-old Gavrilo Princip, member of "Young Bosnia" organization linked to Serbian intelligence "Black Hand." The conspirators received weapons in Serbia.

Chronology of events: In the morning, the first attacker, Nedeljko Čabrinović, threw a bomb — it bounced off and exploded under the following car. The Archduke continued his visit. After official events, the motorcade changed route. The driver made a wrong turn and stopped right in front of the café where Princip sat. He approached and fired twice.

Franz Ferdinand and Sophie died within an hour. Princip was arrested and sentenced to 20 years (as a minor). He died in prison from tuberculosis in 1918.

The assassination itself didn't make war inevitable. The fatal role was played by the "July Crisis" — a chain of diplomatic decisions that turned a regional conflict into world war.

The five weeks between assassination and war are among the most studied periods in history. How did a local conflict become a world catastrophe?

"Blank check" (July 5–6): Germany assured Austria-Hungary of full support. Kaiser Wilhelm II expected a localized war — quick defeat of Serbia before Russia could intervene.

THE Ultimatum (July 23): Austria-Hungary presented Serbia with 10 demands and a 48-hour deadline. Conditions were deliberately unacceptable — requiring Austrian investigators on Serbian territory.

Serbia's response (July 25): Serbia accepted almost all demands except admitting foreign investigators. Austria-Hungary considered the response unsatisfactory.

Cascade of mobilizations: • July 28 — Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia • July 30 — Russia announced general mobilization • August 1 — Germany declared war on Russia • August 3 — Germany declared war on France • August 4 — Germany invaded Belgium. Britain entered the war

Historians continue debating responsibility distribution. Christopher Clark's "Sleepwalkers" emphasizes shared guilt. Fritz Fischer placed primary responsibility on Germany.

Germany prepared for a two-front war. The solution was a plan developed by Count Alfred von Schlieffen in 1905.

The plan's essence: Quick defeat of France in 6 weeks through neutral Belgium, bypassing the fortified Franco-German border. Then transfer troops east against slowly mobilizing Russia.

Invasion of Belgium (August 4): German troops entered neutral Belgium. This decision proved fatal — Britain entered the war to defend Belgian neutrality.

Belgian resistance: The fortress of Liège delayed the Germans for 12 days. "Rape of Belgium" — mass executions of civilians — became the Allies' most powerful propaganda weapon.

"Miracle of the Marne" (September 5–12, 1914): German armies approached Paris within 40 km. French command threw in all reserves — including famous "Marne taxis" — and halted the advance. Germany was forced to retreat.

Consequences: The Schlieffen Plan failed. Germany found itself in a two-front war — exactly the scenario the plan was meant to avoid. The "Race to the Sea" began — attempts to outflank each other that ended with a continuous line of trenches from the Channel to Switzerland.

By late 1914, the Western Front had become a 700-kilometer trench system. Trench warfare began — four years of hell.

THE Trench system: Front line, reserve, rear. Between opposing forces — "no man's land," entangled with barbed wire. Living conditions were horrific: mud, rats, lice, "trench foot."

THE Offensive dilemma: Machine guns and artillery made any offensive suicidal. Attackers lost contact with artillery; defenders brought up reserves by rail. Advances measured in meters, casualties in tens of thousands.

Tactical innovations: • "Creeping barrage" — artillery moving ahead of infantry • Stormtrooper units — small groups with automatic weapons • Tanks (from 1916) — attempt to break the positional deadlock

Christmas Truce 1914: Unofficial ceasefire on parts of the front. Soldiers exchanged gifts, played football. Command forbade repetition.

THE World of the rear: Trench soldiers despised "staff rats" and civilians who didn't understand front-line reality. Frontline brotherhood united men on both sides of the trenches more strongly than ties to their own rear.

The Battle of Verdun — 303 days of continuous fighting, approximately 700,000 casualties on both sides. Symbol of WWI's senseless slaughter.

Falkenhayn's concept: German Chief of Staff Erich von Falkenhayn didn't seek breakthrough. The goal — "bleed France white" at a symbolically important fortress. France would defend Verdun at any cost.

German offensive (February 21): 1,200 guns opened fire on a 13 km front. Intensity — up to 100,000 shells per hour. Fort Douaumont fell on February 25.

French defense: General Philippe Pétain organized the defense. "Ils ne passeront pas!" ("They shall not pass!") — the battle's slogan. "Voie Sacrée" ("Sacred Road") — the only supply route.

Rotation system: Pétain established frequent troop rotation. 70% of the French army passed through Verdun. This preserved morale but made the battle a national experience.

Results: Germany lost roughly as much as France — about 350,000 each. Falkenhayn was dismissed. Verdun remained French, but the cost was monstrous.

Memory: Verdun became a sacred site of French memory. The Douaumont Ossuary holds remains of 130,000 unidentified soldiers.

The Battle of the Somme — the largest battle on the Western Front. July 1, 1916, became the bloodiest day in British Army history.

Preparation: Allies planned a breakthrough by British and French forces. Seven-day artillery barrage — 1.5 million shells. Commander Douglas Haig was confident of success.

THE First day (July 1, 1916): At 7:30 AM, whistles sent infantry over the top. British soldiers carried 30 kg of equipment and walked — artillery was supposed to have destroyed defenses.

THE Catastrophe: German machine gunners emerged from deep dugouts and opened fire. 57,470 British casualties in one day, 19,240 killed. Some battalions lost 90% of their strength in the first hour.

Battle continuation: Despite catastrophe, Haig continued the offensive until November. Tanks first used September 15 — 49 machines, most broke down or got stuck.

Results: In 5 months, Allies advanced 10 km. Casualties: Britain — 420,000, France — 200,000, Germany — 465,000. About a million men — for a strip of land a few kilometers deep.

Memory: The Somme — symbol of "Lions led by donkeys" in British memory. Criticism of Haig continues to this day.

War in the East was more mobile than in the West, but no less bloody. For Russia, it ended in revolution and civil war.

Tannenberg (August 26–30, 1914): Russia invaded East Prussia earlier than Germany expected. But the Russian 2nd Army under General Samsonov was encircled and destroyed. 92,000 prisoners. Samsonov shot himself.

Galicia (August–September 1914): In the south, Russian forces routed Austria-Hungary, capturing Lemberg and besieging Przemyśl. Austria-Hungary lost 400,000 men and never fought independently again.

"Great Retreat" (May–September 1915): German-Austrian offensive pushed Russian forces back 500 km. Russia lost Poland, parts of the Baltic region and Belarus. "Shell hunger" — acute ammunition shortage.

Brusilov Offensive (June–September 1916): General Alexei Brusilov applied revolutionary tactics — attack along entire front without prolonged artillery preparation. Austria-Hungary lost up to 1.5 million men. Greatest Allied success of 1916.

Crisis and revolution: War exhausted Russia. February Revolution (March 1917) overthrew Nicholas II. October Revolution brought Bolsheviks to power. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 3, 1918) — Russia exited the war, losing Poland, Baltic states, Ukraine, Finland.

World War I encompassed the entire globe. Fighting occurred in Africa, the Middle East, the Pacific.

Italian front: Italy entered the war in 1915 on the Entente side. Eleven pointless Battles of the Isonzo. Disaster at Caporetto (1917) — Italian army lost 300,000 prisoners.

Gallipoli (1915–1916): Allied attempt to seize the straits and knock Ottoman Empire out of the war. The peninsula landing failed. 250,000 Allied casualties. For Australia and New Zealand — ANZAC Day (April 25) is a sacred date.

Middle East: "Arab Revolt" supported by British officer T.E. Lawrence ("Lawrence of Arabia"). Capture of Jerusalem (1917) and Damascus (1918). Sykes-Picot Agreement — partition of Ottoman Empire between Britain and France.

Armenian Genocide (1915–1916): Ottoman Empire deported and killed up to 1.5 million Armenians. The first genocide of the 20th century.

Africa: German General Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck waged guerrilla warfare in East Africa until war's end with an army of 14,000.

Pacific: Japan seized German possessions in China and on Pacific islands. This laid groundwork for future Japanese expansion.

Great fleets built over decades played a smaller role than expected. But naval blockade became a decisive factor in victory.

British blockade: The Royal Navy controlled the North Sea, cutting Germany off from world trade. By 1918, Germany faced famine — the "Turnip Winter" of 1916–1917.

Battle of Jutland (May 31 – June 1, 1916): The only major clash of battle fleets. 250 ships, 25 sunk. Britain lost more ships (14 to 11), but Germany retreated and never again sought general engagement.

Submarine warfare: U-boats — the German fleet's main weapon. In 1917, Germany declared unrestricted submarine warfare — sinking any vessels in the blockade zone.

Sinking of Lusitania (May 7, 1915): German submarine U-20 torpedoed British liner. 1,198 dead, including 128 Americans. Wave of outrage in USA.

Convoy system: By 1917, U-boat losses became catastrophic — 25% of ships heading for Britain were sunk. Introduction of convoy system dramatically reduced losses.

US entry: Unrestricted submarine warfare was a major reason for US entry into war in April 1917.

World War I became a laboratory for new killing methods. Industrial-age technologies turned war into mass slaughter.

Machine guns: One Maxim gun could stop an entire company. 400–600 rounds per minute made offensives suicidal. By 1918 — up to 100 machine guns per km of front.

Artillery: War's main killer — 60–70% of all casualties from shells. "Big Bertha" — 420mm gun that destroyed Belgian forts. "Paris Gun" — shelled Paris from 120 km away.

Chemical weapons: Chlorine (Ypres, April 22, 1915) — first mass gas attack. Phosgene — 18 times more toxic than chlorine. Mustard gas ("mustard agent," 1917) — caused terrible burns. 90,000 killed by gas, 1.3 million affected.

Tanks: First used by Britain at the Somme, September 15, 1916. Initially unreliable — of 49 machines, 32 went into action. By 1918 — decisive breakthrough weapon. Battle of Cambrai (1917) — first mass employment (476 tanks).

Aviation: From reconnaissance to dogfights and bombing. Aces — "knights of the sky": Manfred von Richthofen ("Red Baron," 80 victories), René Fonck (75), Edward Mannock (61). Zeppelins and Gotha heavy bombers attacked London.

Communications: Telephone and telegraph. Radio for coordinating fleet and aircraft. But at the front, communications constantly broke — hence the problem of controlling offensives.

World War I was the first "total war" — mobilizing all of society, transforming economy, politics, culture.

War economy: States took control of industry. Germany: Walter Rathenau's "war socialism." Britain: Lloyd George's Ministry of Munitions. Shell production increased tenfold.

Women's labor: Millions of women replaced men in factories, transport, agriculture. In Britain — "munitionettes" — defense factory workers. This accelerated the women's suffrage movement.

Propaganda: First mass state propaganda. "Hun atrocities" in Belgium. Posters ("Daddy, what did YOU do in the Great War?"). Censorship — letters from front were opened.

Hunger and hardship: British blockade strangled Germany. "Turnip Winter" 1916–1917 — 763,000 Germans died from hunger and malnutrition-related diseases.

Desertion and protests: French army mutinies (1917) — 40,000 soldiers refused to attack. Strikes in Germany and Britain. Russia — revolution.

THE Lost generation: War took the flower of youth. In Britain — 37% of men born in 1892 died. "Lost Generation" — those who survived but were forever traumatized.

1917 changed the war's character: Russia exited, USA entered. The war ceased to be European.

February Revolution (March 8–15, 1917): Bread riots in Petrograd escalated into revolution. Nicholas II abdicated. Provisional Government continued the war — a fatal decision.

US entry (April 6, 1917): Unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmermann Telegram (offering Mexico alliance against USA) pushed Woodrow Wilson. "The world must be made safe for democracy."

Nivelle Offensive (April 1917): French command promised breakthrough in 48 hours. Failure led to mutinies — soldiers refused to attack. Pétain suppressed mutinies, executing 49 men.

Passchendaele (July 31 – November 10, 1917): British offensive in Flanders. Torrential rains turned battlefield into swamp. 500,000 casualties — for 8 km of mud.

October Revolution (November 7–8, 1917): Bolsheviks led by Lenin seized power. "Decree on Peace" — call for immediate armistice.

Significance: Germany gained a chance to win — could transfer a million soldiers to the West before Americans arrived. A race against time.

Germany made its final gamble — defeat Allies before American army arrived.

Preparation: Erich Ludendorff concentrated 192 divisions in the West. New tactics: "Stormtroopers" (Stoßtruppen) — small units with automatic weapons, bypassing strongpoints.

Operation Michael (March 21 – April 5): War's largest offensive. 6,000 guns, dense fog. British front broken for 65 km — deepest advance since 1914.

Allied crisis: For first time in war, unified supreme commander appointed — Ferdinand Foch. Germans advanced toward Paris. "Paris Gun" shelled the capital.

Subsequent blows: • Operation Georgette (April) — in Flanders • Operation Blücher (May) — on the Aisne, Germans reached the Marne • Operation Gneisenau (June) • Second Battle of the Marne (July) — final blow

Why failure? Logistics couldn't keep pace with advance. Soldiers captured Allied depots and got drunk. Ludendorff had no strategic objective — only tactical successes.

Second Marne (July 15–18, 1918): Last German offensive halted. Initiative passed to Allies. Counteroffensive began that didn't stop until November 11.

Hundred Days Offensive (August 8 – November 11, 1918) broke the German army and ended the war.

"Black day of the German army" (August 8, 1918): Allies attacked at Amiens. 456 tanks, 2,000 aircraft. German divisions surrendered en masse. Ludendorff called it the "black day."

Tactics of victory: Foch struck sequential blows at different points, preventing Germans from transferring reserves. Tanks, aircraft, coordination — elements of future blitzkrieg.

Arrival of Americans: By fall 1918 — 2 million American soldiers in France. Saint-Mihiel (September), Meuse-Argonne (October) — first major US operations.

Collapse of Germany's allies: • September 29 — Bulgaria capitulated • October 30 — Ottoman Empire exited the war • November 3 — Austria-Hungary signed armistice

November Revolution in Germany: November 3 — sailors' uprising in Kiel. November 9 — Wilhelm II abdicated. Republic proclaimed.

Armistice of Compiègne (November 11, 1918): At 5:00 AM, armistice signed in Marshal Foch's railway car. At 11:00 AM it took effect. "The eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month." The war ended.

The Paris Peace Conference (January 1919 – January 1920) redrew the world map. Treaty of Versailles with Germany was the most controversial.

"The Big Three": Georges Clemenceau (France) — demanded maximum weakening of Germany. David Lloyd George (Britain) — moderate position. Woodrow Wilson (USA) — "Fourteen Points," League of Nations.

Treaty of Versailles terms (June 28, 1919): • Article 231 — "war guilt clause": Germany held responsible for the war • Territorial losses: Alsace-Lorraine to France, "Polish Corridor" to Poland, all colonies • Army — 100,000 men, no tanks, aircraft, submarines • Reparations — 132 billion gold marks (determined in 1921) • Rhineland — demilitarized

German reaction: Treaty seen as "diktat." "Stab in the back" (Dolchstoßlegende) — myth that army wasn't defeated but betrayed by the home front. This poisoned the Weimar Republic.

Other treaties: Saint-Germain (with Austria), Trianon (with Hungary), Neuilly (with Bulgaria), Sèvres (with Ottoman Empire).

Criticism: Foch said: "This is not peace. It is an armistice for twenty years." John Maynard Keynes in "Economic Consequences of the Peace" predicted reparations would destroy Germany and the world economy.

World War I changed the world forever. Its consequences are felt to this day.

Human losses: 17 million dead (10 million military, 7 million civilian). 20 million wounded. "Lost Generation" — an entire youth of Europe.

Collapse of empires: Four empires fell: Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman. New states emerged: Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Finland, Baltic states.

Seeds of WWII: Treaty of Versailles bred German revanchism. Great Depression + "stab in the back" = Hitler's rise to power. Foch proved prophetic — exactly 20 years later, a new war began.

Middle East: Sykes-Picot Agreement drew borders whose conflicts continue today. Balfour Declaration (1917) — promise of "Jewish national home" in Palestine.

CULTURE OF Memory: Armistice Day (November 11) — Veterans Day in USA, Remembrance Day in Britain. Red poppies — symbol from poem "In Flanders Fields." Tomb of Unknown Soldier in Paris, London, other capitals.

Art and literature: "Lost Generation" — Remarque, Hemingway, Sassoon, Owen. "All Quiet on the Western Front," "A Farewell to Arms." War forever changed art — modernism, expressionism, dadaism.

Lessons: The war showed how alliance systems, nationalism, and military planning can turn a local crisis into global catastrophe. League of Nations — first attempt at international security system — failed but became template for UN.