World War II

The roots of World War II lie in the unfinished business of World War I and the imperfect post-war settlement. The Treaty of Versailles (1919), signed on June 28 in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, imposed extremely harsh terms on defeated Germany. The country lost 13.5% of its pre-war territory, all overseas colonies, had to pay reparations of 132 billion gold marks, and limit its army to 100,000 soldiers without tanks, aircraft, or submarines.

In German society, the treaty was perceived as a "Diktat" — a dictated peace and national humiliation. The "stab-in-the-back" myth (Dolchstoßlegende) — the idea that the army was not defeated on the battlefield but betrayed by politicians — gained wide currency and became fertile ground for revanchist sentiment.

The Great Depression (1929–1939), which began with the New York Stock Exchange crash on "Black Thursday," October 24, 1929, dealt a crushing blow to the world economy. In Germany, the consequences were particularly severe: by 1932, unemployment reached 30% of the workforce (about 6 million people), industrial production fell by 40%. Against this backdrop, radical parties — both right and left — gained increasing support.

On January 30, 1933, President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as Reich Chancellor. The NSDAP, which had received 33% of the vote in the November 1932 elections, quickly established totalitarian control: the Reichstag fire (February 27, 1933) served as a pretext for emergency powers, the "Enabling Act" (March 23, 1933) effectively abolished parliamentary democracy, and after Hindenburg's death (August 2, 1934), Hitler combined the offices of president and chancellor, becoming "Führer."

Germany systematically dismantled the Versailles system: introduction of universal conscription (1935), remilitarization of the Rhineland (March 7, 1936), Anschluss of Austria (March 12, 1938). The Munich Agreement (September 29–30, 1938), signed by Germany, Italy, Britain, and France, transferred the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia to Germany without Czechoslovakia's consent. British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, returning from Munich, declared: "I believe it is peace for our time." By March 1939, Germany had occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia, demonstrating the failure of appeasement.

The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (August 23, 1939) — a non-aggression treaty between the USSR and Germany — was the final link in the chain of events leading to war. A secret additional protocol demarcated spheres of influence in Eastern Europe. In Russian historiography, the pact is interpreted as a forced step after failed negotiations with Britain and France, giving the USSR time to prepare for inevitable war. In Western and especially Eastern European historiography, the pact is seen as collusion between two totalitarian regimes that gave Hitler a free hand for aggression.

On September 1, 1939, at 4:45 AM, the German battleship Schleswig-Holstein opened fire on the Polish military base at Westerplatte in Danzig — the war had begun. Simultaneously, 1.5 million German soldiers supported by 2,500 tanks and 2,000 aircraft crossed the Polish border from the north (East Prussia), west, and south (Slovakia).

Blitzkrieg ("lightning war") — a new tactic employed for the first time in a major war. Tank spearheads with massive air support broke through enemy defenses, encircled large formations, preventing them from establishing new defensive lines. The Polish army, despite heroic resistance, was qualitatively and quantitatively weaker: outdated weapons, insufficient mechanization, lack of modern aircraft.

On September 3, 1939, Britain and France, bound by alliance obligations, declared war on Germany. However, no active combat operations followed on the Western Front — the period of the "Phoney War" (Drôle de guerre) lasted until May 1940. France limited itself to a partial offensive in the Saar, which was quickly halted.

On September 17, 1939, the Soviet Union sent troops into eastern Poland, formally justifying this by the need to protect the Ukrainian and Belarusian population in the conditions of the Polish state's collapse. In Soviet and Russian historiography, this is interpreted as reunification of Western Ukrainian and Western Belarusian lands; in Polish historiography — as aggression and complicity in the partition.

Warsaw capitulated on September 28 after a heroic defense during which the city was subjected to massive bombardment. By October 6, organized resistance by the Polish army had ceased. Poland was divided: western territories incorporated into the Reich, central ones formed the General Government under German occupation, eastern ones became part of the USSR.

Polish losses amounted to about 66,000 killed and 133,000 wounded military personnel; about 694,000 became German prisoners. Germany lost about 16,000 killed — minimal losses for such a large-scale operation. The catastrophe of September 1939 marked the beginning of a six-year occupation that would claim the lives of about 6 million Poles — 17% of the pre-war population.

The Soviet-Finnish ("Winter") War began on November 30, 1939, with the USSR's attack on Finland. The formal pretext was the "Mainila incident" — shelling of Soviet territory for which the USSR blamed Finland (modern historians consider it a provocation).

The USSR sought to push the border away from Leningrad (which was 32 km from it), gain a naval base on the Hanko Peninsula, and control the Gulf of Finland. Negotiations in autumn 1939 about a peaceful settlement reached an impasse: Finland refused to cede territory, the USSR used force.

The beginning of the war turned into a catastrophe for the Red Army. Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet forces faced effective Finnish defense. The Mannerheim Line — a system of fortifications on the Karelian Isthmus — held back the offensive. Finnish ski troops struck at extended supply lines. In December 1939 – January 1940, several Soviet divisions were encircled and destroyed.

The USSR was expelled from the League of Nations as an aggressor (December 14, 1939). Britain and France considered plans to aid Finland, including landing an expeditionary force.

After reorganization and concentration of superior forces, the Red Army in February 1940 broke through the Mannerheim Line. On March 12, 1940, the Moscow Peace Treaty was signed: Finland ceded the Karelian Isthmus, part of Karelia, islands in the Gulf of Finland, and leased the Hanko Peninsula. The border from Leningrad was pushed back 150 km.

Losses: USSR — officially 126,875 killed (modern estimates up to 150,000), Finland — about 26,000 killed. The war demonstrated serious problems in the Red Army and, according to many historians, reinforced Hitler's belief that the USSR was "a colossus with feet of clay." In Russian historiography, it is emphasized that the war allowed the border to be pushed back and Leningrad to be protected in the future war with Germany.

On May 10, 1940, Germany launched Operation Yellow (Fall Gelb) — the invasion of Western Europe. On the same day, Neville Chamberlain resigned and Winston Churchill became Prime Minister of Britain.

The German command's plan provided for a diversionary strike through Belgium and the Netherlands, where the Allies moved their best forces, and the main strike through the Ardennes — a forested region that the French command considered impassable for tanks. The plan's author was General Erich von Manstein; the idea was supported by Hitler.

The Netherlands capitulated on May 15 after the bombing of Rotterdam, which killed about 900 people. Belgium resisted until May 28. The main thrust of seven tank divisions through the Ardennes led to a breakthrough at Sedan (May 13–15). Guderian's tank group raced to the English Channel, cutting off the Allied armies in Belgium.

The Dunkirk evacuation (May 26 – June 4, 1940) became one of the key episodes of the war. The British and French forces surrounded at the coast seemed doomed. On May 24, Hitler ordered the tanks to halt — the reasons for this decision are still debated by historians (troop fatigue, marshy terrain, Göring's confidence that the Luftwaffe would destroy the enemy from the air). Operation Dynamo evacuated 338,226 people (224,000 British, 114,000 French soldiers) on 861 vessels — from destroyers to pleasure yachts. Heavy equipment had to be abandoned.

On June 14, German troops entered Paris. On June 22, 1940, in Compiègne Forest, in the same railway car where Germany signed the armistice in 1918, France capitulated. Northern France and the Atlantic coast were occupied by Germany; in the south, the nominally independent Vichy regime was created under Marshal Henri Pétain.

The French campaign lasted 46 days. Losses: France — about 90,000 killed, 200,000 wounded, 1,850,000 prisoners; Germany — about 27,000 killed, 111,000 wounded. Victory seemed absolute: continental Europe lay at Hitler's feet.

After the fall of France, Britain remained the only European power continuing the war against Germany. Winston Churchill in his famous speech of June 18, 1940, declared: "The Battle of France is over. The Battle of Britain is about to begin."

Hitler hoped for a peace agreement with Britain and issued the directive for invasion preparations (Operation Sea Lion) only on July 16, 1940. A prerequisite was achieving air superiority — a task assigned to the Luftwaffe under Hermann Göring.

The Battle of Britain (July 10 – October 31, 1940) was the first major battle fought entirely by air forces. The Luftwaffe had about 2,600 aircraft, the Royal Air Force (RAF) — about 700 fighters. However, the British had key advantages: the radar system (Chain Home), allowing early detection of raids; Spitfire and Hurricane fighters matching the German Bf 109; shorter distance to bases (downed British pilots could return to action, German ones became prisoners).

The first phase (July – early August) — attacks on convoys and ports. The second phase (August 13 – September 6) — "Eagle Day" (Adlertag) and massive attacks on airfields and aircraft factories. The RAF suffered heavy losses, the situation became critical. The third phase (September 7 – late October) — switching to bombing London ("the Blitz"). This decision, made by Hitler after a British raid on Berlin, gave the RAF a respite for recovery.

September 15, 1940 — "Battle of Britain Day" — the Luftwaffe lost 60 aircraft in daylight raids. This demonstrated the German air force's inability to achieve superiority. On September 17, Hitler postponed Operation Sea Lion indefinitely.

Results: Luftwaffe lost 1,887 aircraft, RAF — 1,547. About 23,000 British civilians died. The battle was Germany's first strategic defeat. "Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few," Churchill said of RAF pilots.

On June 22, 1941, at 3:15 AM, without declaring war, Germany and its allies attacked the Soviet Union. Operation Barbarossa was the largest military invasion in history: 3.8 million Axis soldiers, 3,350 tanks, 7,200 guns, 2,770 aircraft.

The plan envisioned a lightning defeat of the Red Army before winter. Three army groups advanced in diverging directions: Army Group North — toward Leningrad, Center — toward Moscow through Minsk and Smolensk, South — toward Kiev and the Donbas.

The first weeks of war were a catastrophe for the USSR. By the evening of June 22, Soviet aviation had lost about 1,200 aircraft (800 on the ground). The border battles ended in defeat: by mid-July, over 400,000 Soviet soldiers had been killed or captured in "pockets" near Białystok and Minsk.

Stalin addressed the nation only on July 3, beginning his speech with the words: "Comrades! Citizens! Brothers and sisters!" — an unusually personal address for Soviet rhetoric. The war was declared Patriotic, parallels were drawn with 1812.

By late August, the Germans had advanced 600 km, capturing Smolensk, surrounding Leningrad, reaching Kiev. The Kiev defensive operation (August–September 1941) ended in the largest encirclement in war history: about 665,000 Soviet servicemen were captured.

The Siege of Leningrad began on September 8, 1941. The city was cut off by land; communication with the "mainland" was maintained only across Lake Ladoga (the "Road of Life"). The siege lasted 872 days and claimed the lives of about 1 million civilians — primarily from starvation.

The Battle of Moscow (September 30, 1941 – April 20, 1942) was the Wehrmacht's first major defeat. Operation Typhoon began successfully: encirclements near Vyazma and Bryansk produced another 660,000 prisoners. By late October, German troops were 80 km from Moscow. On October 15–16, panic began in the capital.

However, the autumn rains, stretched communications, lack of winter equipment, and fierce resistance stopped the offensive. On December 5–6, 1941, the Red Army launched a counteroffensive, pushing the enemy back 100–250 km. Plan Barbarossa had failed: blitzkrieg didn't work, the war became prolonged.

On December 7, 1941, at 7:48 AM local time, 353 Japanese aircraft from six carriers attacked the main US Pacific Fleet base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. The attack was carried out without a declaration of war — the note breaking diplomatic relations was delivered late due to technical problems at the Japanese embassy.

Japan, dependent on oil imports, found itself in a difficult position after the US, Britain, and the Netherlands imposed an embargo in July 1941 in response to the occupation of French Indochina. Japanese leadership faced a choice: retreat from China and Indochina or start a war for Southeast Asian resources. The second path was chosen.

Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto's plan called for a surprise strike on the American fleet to buy time for seizing the "Southern Resources" (Dutch East Indies oil, Malayan rubber). Yamamoto warned: "I can run wild for six months to a year, but have absolutely no confidence in the second and third years."

Results of the attack: 8 battleships sunk or seriously damaged (including Arizona and Oklahoma), 3 cruisers, 3 destroyers, 188 aircraft destroyed. 2,403 Americans died, 1,178 wounded. Japanese losses — 29 aircraft, 5 midget submarines, 64 men.

However, the attack had strategic miscalculations: the carriers Enterprise, Lexington, and Saratoga were absent from base; fuel depots (4.5 million barrels) and repair facilities were not attacked; submarines survived. Moreover, the attack without a declaration of war united American society as nothing else could.

President Roosevelt called December 7 "a date which will live in infamy." On December 8, Congress declared war on Japan (only 1 vote against). On December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the USA, drawing America into the European conflict. Isolationism, which had dominated American politics, was swept away.

The Battle of Stalingrad (July 17, 1942 – February 2, 1943) was one of the largest and bloodiest battles in the history of warfare, marking the fundamental turning point of World War II. Total casualties on both sides exceeded 2 million.

After the failed offensive on Moscow, the German command shifted the main effort south: capture of the Caucasus oil fields and cutting the Volga — the USSR's main transport artery. Stalingrad had strategic importance as an industrial center (tank, artillery factories) and symbolic significance — the city bore Stalin's name.

The German summer offensive of 1942 (Operation Blue) initially developed successfully. By late August, the 6th Army under General Friedrich Paulus had reached the Volga northeast of the city. On August 23, massive bombing turned Stalingrad to rubble; about 40,000 civilians died.

Fighting in the city took the form of fierce street battles for every house, floor, room. The "rat war" (Rattenkrieg), as the Germans called it, nullified the Wehrmacht's advantage in maneuver and firepower. Symbols of resistance included "Pavlov's House" (58 days of defense), Mamayev Kurgan, where the height changed hands repeatedly, and the grain elevator.

On July 28, 1942, Stalin signed Order No. 227 "Not One Step Back!" which provided for the creation of penal battalions and blocking detachments. Assessments of the order are mixed: some historians see it as a manifestation of regime cruelty, others — as a necessary measure at a critical moment.

On November 19–23, 1942, the Red Army launched Operation Uranus — a counteroffensive by three fronts. Strikes were delivered against the flanks, which were covered by Romanian and Italian troops. On November 23, the encirclement ring closed: about 330,000 German and allied soldiers were trapped in the "cauldron."

The relief attempt (Operation Winter Storm, December 1942) failed. Hitler forbade Paulus to break out or surrender, promoting him to Field Marshal (hinting that no German field marshal had ever surrendered). On February 2, 1943, the remnants of the 6th Army surrendered. 24 generals and about 91,000 soldiers were captured, including Paulus himself. About 6,000 returned home after the war.

Stalingrad became a symbol. In the USSR — a symbol of resilience and victory. In Germany — of catastrophe, the beginning of the end. After Stalingrad, strategic initiative passed to the Allies.

The Battle of Kursk (July 5 – August 23, 1943) was Germany's last attempt to turn the tide of war in the East. Operation Citadel aimed to pinch off the Kursk salient — a bulge in the front line protruding deep into German positions.

By summer 1943, both sides had concentrated colossal forces in the Kursk area. Germany — about 900,000 men, 2,700 tanks (including the newest Tigers and Panthers), 10,000 guns. USSR — about 1,300,000 men, 3,400 tanks, 19,000 guns. The Soviet command, having learned of enemy plans in advance through intelligence (including the "Red Orchestra" spy network), decided on deliberate defense followed by counteroffensive.

The German offensive began on July 5. On the northern face of the salient, General Model's forces advanced only 10–12 km. On the southern face, Manstein's tank group penetrated deeper, leading to the tank battle at Prokhorovka (July 12). For a long time, it was considered the largest tank battle in history (up to 1,500 tanks on both sides), though modern research refines these figures and the nature of the engagement.

On July 12, the Soviet counteroffensive began in the Orel direction (Operation Kutuzov), on August 3 — in the Belgorod-Kharkov direction (Operation Rumyantsev). On August 5, Orel and Belgorod were liberated; Moscow saw its first salute in honor of victory. On August 23, Kharkov was liberated.

The Battle of Kursk definitively broke the Wehrmacht's offensive potential. German losses — about 500,000 men, 1,500 tanks, 1,000 aircraft. The USSR lost more — about 860,000 men, 6,000 tanks — but could replace losses; Germany could not.

Operation Bagration (June 23 – August 29, 1944) was one of the largest military operations in history. In two months, Soviet forces routed Army Group Center, advanced 600 km, liberated Belarus and part of the Baltic states, and reached Poland's borders. German losses — about 400,000 men (more than at Stalingrad).

By late 1944, the Red Army had liberated almost all Soviet territory and entered Eastern Europe: Romania (August), Bulgaria (September), Yugoslavia (October), Hungary (siege of Budapest began in December). Germany lay ahead.

The Normandy landings on June 6, 1944 ("D-Day") was the largest amphibious operation in history and the opening of the long-awaited Second Front in Western Europe. The USSR had demanded its opening since 1942; the delay remains a subject of debate between Western and Russian historiography.

Operation Overlord was prepared for over a year. To deceive the enemy, Operation Fortitude convinced the Germans that the main strike would come at Pas-de-Calais. American General Dwight Eisenhower was appointed Supreme Allied Commander.

On the night of June 6, three airborne divisions (two American, one British) landed behind German lines. At dawn, the seaborne assault began. About 7,000 ships delivered approximately 156,000 soldiers to five beaches (code names: Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno, Sword).

At Omaha Beach, American troops faced fierce resistance: casualties in the first hours reached 2,000. On other beaches, the landings were more successful. By day's end, the Allies held bridgeheads up to 10 km deep with total casualties of about 10,000 (4,414 killed).

On July 25, Operation Cobra began — the breakout from Normandy. On August 15, the Allies landed in southern France (Operation Dragoon). On August 25, Paris was liberated. By September, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and part of the Netherlands were liberated.

The Ardennes Offensive (December 16, 1944 – January 25, 1945) was Germany's last major operation in the West. The attack caught the Allies off guard; the Germans advanced 100 km, creating a "bulge" (hence the American name "Battle of the Bulge"). However, fuel shortages and counterattacks stopped the offensive. American casualties — about 75,000; German — about 100,000.

On March 7, 1945, Americans captured the Remagen Bridge across the Rhine — the only one still standing. The invasion of Germany began. On April 25, 1945, Soviet and American forces met on the Elbe near Torgau.

The Pacific War spanned vast spaces from the Aleutian Islands to Australia, from Burma to Hawaii. The Japanese Empire at the war's start controlled Korea, Manchuria, and much of China, and sought to create the "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere."

After Pearl Harbor, Japan conducted a series of lightning operations over six months. On December 10, 1941, Japanese aircraft sank the British battleship Prince of Wales and battlecruiser Repulse — the first major ships destroyed from the air on the open sea. On February 15, 1942, Singapore surrendered — the "impregnable fortress" of the British Empire (about 80,000 prisoners). By May 1942, Japan controlled the Philippines, Dutch East Indies, Malaya, and Burma.

The Battle of Midway (June 4–7, 1942) was the turning point. The Japanese fleet, heading to capture Midway Atoll, was intercepted by American carriers thanks to code-breaking. Japan lost 4 carriers, 248 aircraft, and many experienced pilots. The USA lost 1 carrier. From this point, initiative passed to the Americans.

Guadalcanal (August 1942 – February 1943) was the first American offensive. Fighting for the island in the Solomon archipelago lasted six months and cost both sides heavy losses.

The "island-hopping" strategy, proposed by General Douglas MacArthur and Admiral Chester Nimitz, called for capturing strategically important islands while bypassing heavily fortified positions. Tarawa (November 1943), Saipan (June–July 1944), Philippines (October 1944 – August 1945) — stages of the advance toward Japan.

Iwo Jima (February–March 1945) and Okinawa (April–June 1945) were the bloodiest battles in the Pacific. At Iwo Jima, about 7,000 American Marines died. At Okinawa, US losses were 12,500 killed; Japanese — about 110,000 military and up to 150,000 civilians. Mass kamikaze attacks sank or damaged hundreds of ships.

The experience of Iwo Jima and Okinawa influenced the decision to use atomic weapons: the planned invasion of Japan (Operation Downfall) threatened losses of hundreds of thousands on both sides.

The Holocaust (from Greek "whole burnt offering") or Shoah (Hebrew "catastrophe") was the systematic persecution and murder by Nazi Germany and its collaborators of about 6 million Jews — two-thirds of Europe's Jewish population.

Antisemitism was central to Nazi ideology from its inception. The Nuremberg Laws (September 15, 1935) stripped German Jews of citizenship and prohibited marriages with "Aryans." Kristallnacht (November 9–10, 1938) — a pogrom in which hundreds of synagogues were destroyed, 91 Jews killed, about 30,000 sent to concentration camps — marked the transition to open violence.

With the start of the war and occupation of Poland, Jews were herded into ghettos — isolated city districts. The Warsaw Ghetto (about 450,000 people in 3.4 km²), Łódź, Kraków — places of hunger, disease, forced labor.

After the attack on the USSR, Einsatzgruppen — special SS units — carried out mass shootings of Jews in occupied territories. Babi Yar (September 29–30, 1941) — the shooting of about 34,000 Kiev Jews — was one of the largest episodes of the "Holocaust by bullets." Total victims of the Einsatzgruppen — about 1.5 million.

The Wannsee Conference (January 20, 1942) coordinated the "Final Solution to the Jewish Question" — a plan for systematic murder of all European Jews. Death camps with gas chambers and crematoria were created: Auschwitz-Birkenau (about 1.1 million victims), Treblinka (about 870,000), Sobibór (about 250,000), Bełżec (about 430,000), Chełmno (about 150,000), Majdanek (about 80,000).

Resistance was limited but existed. The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising (April–May 1943) lasted nearly a month. Uprisings at Treblinka and Sobibór (1943) led to escapes by some prisoners.

On January 27, 1945, the Red Army liberated Auschwitz. This day is International Holocaust Remembrance Day. The Nuremberg Trials (1945–1946) for the first time in history classified such crimes as "crimes against humanity." The Holocaust became a central event for understanding 20th-century history, a moral imperative of "Never Again."

By early 1945, Germany was doomed. The Red Army advanced from the east, Anglo-American forces from the west, Allied aircraft destroyed cities. Yet Hitler refused to acknowledge defeat.

The Yalta Conference (February 4–11, 1945) determined post-war Europe. Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill agreed on occupation zones for Germany, reparations, Poland's borders, and creation of the UN. The USSR committed to enter the war against Japan.

The Berlin Operation (April 16 – May 8, 1945) was the concluding battle of the war in Europe. Soviet forces (2.5 million men, 6,250 tanks, 41,600 guns) advanced from two directions: Marshal Zhukov's 1st Belorussian Front from the east, Marshal Konev's 1st Ukrainian Front from the south.

Breaking through the Seelow Heights (April 16–19) cost heavy losses: the 1st Belorussian Front alone lost about 33,000 killed. On April 20, Hitler's birthday, Soviet artillery began shelling central Berlin. On April 25, the encirclement ring closed.

Street fighting in Berlin (April 25 – May 2) was fierce. The city was defended by remnants of regular troops, Volkssturm (militia), SS units including foreign formations. Soviet troops suffered heavy losses from Panzerfausts in urban conditions.

On April 30, 1945, Hitler committed suicide in the Führerbunker. On the same day, Sergeants Yegorov and Kantaria raised the Victory Banner over the Reichstag. On May 2, the Berlin garrison surrendered.

On May 7, 1945, in Reims, the act of unconditional surrender was signed before the Western Allies. The USSR insisted on repeating the ceremony. The Act of Unconditional Surrender was signed on the night of May 8–9 in Karlshorst (a Berlin suburb) in the presence of representatives of the USSR, USA, Britain, and France.

The war in Europe was over. Berlin Operation losses: USSR — about 78,000 killed, 274,000 wounded; Germany — about 100,000 killed, 480,000 prisoners.

By summer 1945, Japan was weakened but not defeated. Bombing destroyed cities, naval blockade strangled the economy, but Japanese command prepared to defend the homeland. The planned Allied invasion (Operation Downfall) threatened losses of hundreds of thousands on both sides.

The Manhattan Project — a secret atomic weapons program — by July 1945 had created three bombs: the plutonium "Gadget" (tested July 16 in New Mexico), the uranium "Little Boy," and the plutonium "Fat Man."

The Potsdam Conference (July 17 – August 2, 1945) issued Japan an ultimatum: unconditional surrender or "prompt and utter destruction." The Japanese government rejected the demand (mokusatsu — "kill with silence").

On August 6, 1945, B-29 bomber Enola Gay dropped the "Little Boy" bomb on Hiroshima. Blast yield — about 15 kilotons. About 80,000 people died instantly; by year's end, another 60,000 died from wounds and radiation. The city was destroyed.

On August 8, the USSR declared war on Japan. Soviet forces launched the Manchurian Operation — destroying the Kwantung Army (about 1 million men) in Manchuria, Korea, Sakhalin, and the Kuril Islands. Within three weeks, Japanese forces on the continent were annihilated.

On August 9, 1945, the "Fat Man" bomb was dropped on Nagasaki (the original target was Kokura, hidden by clouds). About 40,000 died instantly, up to 80,000 by year's end.

The necessity of the bombings remains debated. The traditional American position: the bombs saved lives by hastening surrender. Critics argue that Japan was already seeking ways out of the war, Soviet entry made its position hopeless, and the bombings were also intended as a demonstration of power to the USSR.

On August 15, 1945, Emperor Hirohito addressed the nation by radio (for the first time in history), announcing surrender. The Act of Surrender was signed on September 2, 1945, aboard the battleship Missouri in Tokyo Bay. World War II was over.

The Resistance movement united diverse forces fighting Nazi occupation: from communists to monarchists, from partisans to spies. Forms of struggle ranged from armed actions to sabotage, from rescuing the persecuted to underground press.

The French Resistance (Résistance) united internal forces and General de Gaulle's "Free France" in London. By 1944, the Resistance had about 400,000 members. Partisans (maquis) operated in mountain regions, underground fighters in cities. The Resistance played an important role in liberating Paris (August 1944).

The Polish Underground State was a unique structure with a government in exile, underground administration, courts, and education system. The Home Army (up to 400,000 fighters) conducted thousands of operations. The Warsaw Uprising (August 1 – October 2, 1944) was brutally suppressed by the Germans; about 200,000 died, the city was destroyed.

Yugoslav Partisans under Josip Broz Tito waged large-scale guerrilla war. By 1944, their ranks numbered about 800,000. Yugoslavia was the only occupied country that liberated itself primarily by its own efforts.

The Soviet partisan movement became massive after 1942. By 1944, about 1 million partisans were operating. The "rail war" disrupted Wehrmacht supplies; partisans controlled vast areas behind enemy lines.

Collaboration — cooperation with occupiers — took different forms and had different motives: from forced survival to ideological affinity. The Vichy regime in France cooperated in deporting Jews. Vidkun Quisling in Norway became a symbol of betrayal (his name became a common noun). Volunteer SS units were formed from citizens of occupied countries. Andrey Vlasov created the Russian Liberation Army from Soviet POWs.

Assessments of resistance and collaboration are ambiguous and often politicized. After the war, many countries underwent a painful process of reflection: who was a hero, who a traitor, who simply survived under impossible conditions.

World War II claimed 70–85 million lives — about 3% of Earth's population. Losses were unprecedented: for the first time in a major war, civilian casualties exceeded military ones (ratio approximately 55:45). The USSR lost about 27 million, China about 20 million, Germany about 8 million, Poland about 6 million (17% of population — the highest percentage).

Material destruction was colossal. In the USSR, 1,710 cities, 70,000 villages, 32,000 industrial enterprises were destroyed. Warsaw, Dresden, Hiroshima lay in ruins. Europe needed reconstruction.

The United Nations was founded on October 24, 1945. The UN Charter enshrined principles of sovereignty, prohibition of aggression, and human rights. The Security Council with veto power for five permanent members (USA, USSR, Britain, France, China) became a mechanism for maintaining peace.

The Nuremberg Trials (November 20, 1945 – October 1, 1946) tried major war criminals. For the first time in history, aggressive war and crimes against humanity were classified as international crimes. 12 defendants were sentenced to death, 7 to imprisonment.

Europe was divided into spheres of influence. On March 5, 1946, Churchill in Fulton declared: "From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent." The Cold War began.

The Marshall Plan (1948–1952) — the American program for European recovery — provided $13 billion (about $150 billion in modern prices). The USSR and Eastern European countries refused to participate under pressure from Moscow.

NATO (1949) and the Warsaw Pact (1955) cemented the military-political division of Europe. The Berlin Wall (1961) became a symbol of this division.

Decolonization accelerated. The weakening of European metropoles and new principles of international law led to the liberation of Asia and Africa. India (1947), Indonesia (1949), African countries (1960s) — dozens of new states appeared on the world map.

The creation of Israel (May 14, 1948) was a direct consequence of the Holocaust. The UN resolution on partition of Palestine (1947), mass immigration of surviving Jews, the Arab-Israeli conflict — consequences felt to this day.

World War II remains the central event in 20th-century historical memory. However, this memory differs across countries, generating debates and conflicts of interpretation.

In Russia, the war is called the Great Patriotic War (1941–1945). Victory Day on May 9 is the main state holiday, uniting the nation. The "Immortal Regiment" march since 2012 gathers millions of participants. Critics point to tendencies toward mythologization and use of war memory for political purposes.

In Germany, the process of Vergangenheitsbewältigung (coming to terms with the past) took decades. Recognition of responsibility, payment of reparations, criminal prosecution of Holocaust denial became the norm. The Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe in central Berlin (2005) symbolizes this memory.

In the USA, the war is perceived as "The Good War" — a just fight for democracy. Memory of it shapes national identity, though debates about atomic bombings continue.

In Japan, memory is ambivalent. The country is simultaneously aggressor (war in China, occupation of Southeast Asia) and victim (Hiroshima, Nagasaki). Debates about textbook content, politicians' visits to Yasukuni Shrine (where war criminals are also enshrined) complicate relations with neighbors.

Historiographical debates continue: • Start of the war: 1939 (Eurocentric approach) or 1937 (Japan's war with China)? • Decisive contribution to victory: Eastern Front (Soviet position) or "coalition victory" (Western)? • Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact: forced step or collusion of aggressors? • Atomic bombings: military necessity or war crime? • Role of Resistance: mass heroism or romanticized myth?

Modern historians strive for a transnational approach that considers all sides' perspectives. Opening of archives after 1991 has allowed clarification of many facts. However, politicization of history — using war memory in contemporary conflicts — remains a serious problem.

World War II is not just history but a moral lesson. "Never Again" — a formula born from the horrors of the Holocaust and total war — remains relevant.